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Research Overview
Rigorous evaluations of the Positive Action program have consisted of two matched-control designs with archival data collected by school districts during the 1990s (Hawaii, Nevada and a large southeastern district) and two recently completed randomized trials (Hawaii and Chicago). The evaluators reported statistically significant improvements in school performance and behavior as follows (all expressed as percentage improvements by the intervention group compared to the control group).
- Multiple studies have demonstrated that more exposure to Positive Action produces stronger effects.
- Some studies demonstrated greater effects in high-risk schools (higher mobility, poverty or ethnic minorities).
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SUMMARY OF EFFECTS OF PA FROM RIGOROUS STUDIES (matched control or randomized)
All results shown as % improvement (all statistically significant unless shown as "ns")
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Research Design |
Matched controls1 |
Matched controls with
pretest comparability2 |
Randomized trials |
Region/District |
Nevada |
Hawaii |
SE |
SE follow-up |
Hawaii6 |
Chicago7 |
Level of school |
Elem |
Elem |
Elem |
MS |
HS |
Elem |
Elem |
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School performance |
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All archival school-level data |
Archival school-level |
Absenteeism |
5%(ns) |
8% |
13%(ns) |
75% |
12% |
14% |
10% |
Drop-out |
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37% |
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Retention in grade |
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73% |
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Employed after HS |
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18% |
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Higher education after HS |
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38% |
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Standardized Reading Scores |
13% |
52% |
45%3 |
20% |
11% |
13% |
16% |
Standardized Math Scores |
21% |
51% |
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16% |
10% |
12% |
11%(ns) |
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Behavior |
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Archival school-level data |
Archival school-level |
Suspensions |
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80% |
34% |
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28% |
73% |
77% |
Disciplinary referrals |
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78% |
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69%5 |
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80% |
Student-level data8 |
Violence |
85% |
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68%4 |
70% |
50% |
52%9 |
37%9 |
Bullying |
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41% |
Drug use |
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71%5 |
49%5 |
44% |
31% |
Tobacco |
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47% |
29% |
Alcohol |
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46% |
23% |
Gotten drunk |
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70% |
52% |
Illegal/Marijuana |
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73% |
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Crime (property/falsifying) |
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52%5 |
57% |
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Sexual behavior |
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14% |
83% |
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Disruptive behavior |
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27%(ns) |
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Notes:
- Results from matched control studies using archival data collected by school districts, but without pretest data on any outcome variable, are available from districts that implemented the PA program in the 1990’s in two areas of the country, Nevada and Hawaii (Flay et al., 2001), and the Southeast (SE) as reported in Flay & Allred (2003). Both of these studies used matched-controls designs, where schools that did PA were matched with similar schools that did not do PA.
- In a third study, schools from a large southeastern district (Flay & Allred, 2003), a similar matched-control design was used, but pretest data on one of the outcome variables (achievement scores, absenteeism, suspensions) were also available, and they demonstrated that the matching on demographic variables led to exactly comparable sets of schools. Students received the PA program in elementary schools and results were reported from those elementary schools as well as the middle- and high- schools subsequently attended by PA graduates and their controls (where PA was not offered). The long-term follow-up results reported here are for those MSs or HSs with high proportions of PA graduates (from elementary schools) compared with those MSs and HSs with no or very low proportions of PA graduates.
- Effects were larger in schools with higher proportions of students receiving free/reduced price lunch.
- Effects were larger in schools with higher proportions of African-American students.
- Effects were larger in middle schools with higher rates of mobility.
- Academic outcomes are school-wide after 5 years of PA (Snyder et al, under review). Behavioral results are after 4 years of PA and student-reported behaviors are at grade 5 (Beets et al., 2009).
- Chicago behavioral results are after 3 years of PA, and student-reported behaviors are at grade 5 (Li et al, under review).
- Relative improvement in percent ever doing the behavior.
- Serious violence (e.g., carrying weapons, threatening people, cutting or shooting at people, gang activity).
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Research Overview